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China fusion development roadmap

China's national fusion development roadmap is a state-directed, multi-decade strategy to achieve commercial fusion energy. It follows a phased approach, leveraging both domestic experimental devices like EAST and HL-2M and international collaboration through ITER to develop a demonstration power plant by mid-century.

Overview

China's fusion development roadmap represents one of the world's most ambitious, well-funded, and strategically coordinated efforts to realize fusion energy. Driven by national objectives for energy security, technological sovereignty, and carbon neutrality, the program is centrally managed by government bodies including the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST). The roadmap is characterized by a parallel pursuit of multiple fusion concepts, with a primary emphasis on magnetic confinement fusion (MCF) via the tokamak pathway. It follows a widely articulated "three-step" strategy: 1) establishing the physics basis with existing and near-term experimental reactors; 2) constructing a fusion engineering test reactor (CFETR) to integrate and test reactor-relevant technologies; and 3) building a demonstration power plant (DEMO) to prove commercial viability. This strategy is supported by significant long-term state investment, a rapidly growing domestic research and industrial base, and active participation in international collaborations, most notably the ITER project.

Physics / Mechanism

The strategic mechanism of the Chinese roadmap is built on a foundation of advancing plasma physics while simultaneously developing the engineering and materials science required for a power plant. The program is not focused on a single physics approach but rather a portfolio, with clear feedback loops between experimental results and next-generation machine design.

Magnetic Confinement Fusion (MCF): The core of the roadmap is the steady-state, high-performance tokamak. The physics focus is on achieving and sustaining high-confinement modes (H-modes) for extended durations, which is essential for a commercially viable reactor. Research on devices like EAST and HL-2M is centered on key challenges for steady-state operation: managing plasma-wall interactions, developing efficient methods for plasma heating and current drive, and controlling plasma instabilities over long pulses. The roadmap explicitly targets a high Lawson criterion product (n·τ·T) and a high fusion gain factor (Q). The design of the next major facility, CFETR, is directly informed by these experimental campaigns, aiming for a Q_plasma > 10 and a fusion power output in the range of 200 MW to over 1 GW, depending on the design phase.

Enabling Technologies: A significant portion of the roadmap's mechanism involves a technology-first approach. China is investing heavily in the development of high-temperature superconducting (HTS) magnets, which promise stronger magnetic fields and more compact, efficient reactor designs. Another critical area is the development of tritium breeding blankets. The program is testing several blanket concepts, including Helium-Cooled Ceramic Breeder (HCCB) and Water-Cooled Ceramic Breeder (WCCB) test blanket modules, to achieve a tritium breeding ratio (TBR) greater than 1. This is a non-negotiable requirement for a self-sustaining fusion fuel cycle. Advances in materials science for plasma-facing components, particularly tungsten and advanced steels, are pursued to handle the extreme heat and neutron fluxes expected in CFETR and DEMO.

Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF): While less publicized, China maintains a robust ICF program, primarily for national security and high-energy-density physics research. Facilities like the SG-II and SG-III laser systems at the Research Center of Laser Fusion in Mianyang are used to study laser-plasma interactions and implosion physics. The physics goals are analogous to those of the U.S. National Ignition Facility (NIF), aiming to achieve ignition and high energy gain through laser-driven compression of deuterium-tritium fuel pellets. While distinct from the MCF energy program, advancements in ICF provide fundamental physics insights and drive technological development in areas like high-power lasers and target fabrication.

Historical development

China's fusion research began in the 1950s but gained significant momentum in the late 20th century. The Southwestern Institute of Physics (SWIP) and the Institute of Plasma Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (ASIPP) became the two pillars of the national program.

  • 1980s-1990s: Development of the first generation of domestic tokamaks. SWIP built the HL-1 (1984) and later the HL-1M, China's first tokamak with a divertor. ASIPP, with Russian collaboration, constructed the HT-6M and later the HT-7 (1994), a superconducting tokamak that provided crucial early experience with long-pulse operation.

  • 2000s: A period of major expansion. In 2002, SWIP completed the HL-2A, a medium-sized device with a flexible divertor configuration acquired from Germany's ASDEX Upgrade program. The most significant milestone was the commissioning of ASIPP's Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) in 2006. As the world's first fully superconducting tokamak with a non-circular cross-section, EAST was designed from the outset to explore steady-state, high-performance plasma physics.

  • 2006: China officially joined the ITER project as a full member. This was a pivotal moment, granting China access to the forefront of international fusion engineering and science, while also committing it to providing significant in-kind contributions, such as magnet conductors, power supplies, and diagnostic systems. This participation has been instrumental in elevating China's domestic manufacturing and quality assurance capabilities to world-class standards.

  • 2020: SWIP commissioned the HL-2M tokamak in Chengdu. Known as China's "artificial sun," it is designed to achieve higher plasma temperatures (over 150 million °C) and densities, serving as a key physics platform for supporting ITER and designing CFETR.

Current status

As of 2026, China's fusion program is in a phase of aggressive experimentation and next-step design. The program is operating several world-class facilities while finalizing the engineering design for its next generation of machines.

EAST continues to set records for long-pulse H-mode operation. In 2021, it sustained a plasma at 120 million °C for 101 seconds, and later achieved a 1,056-second pulse in a different plasma regime. These experiments provide invaluable data on the physics of steady-state plasma control. HL-2M is exploring high-density and high-temperature operational scenarios, complementing EAST's long-pulse mission and providing critical data for divertor physics, a key challenge for CFETR and ITER.

The design for the China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor (CFETR) is mature. Led by ASIPP, the project has completed its conceptual design and is in the engineering design phase. The current reference design specifies a large-scale tokamak aiming for 1 GW of fusion power and a net electricity output of several hundred MWe, with a goal of starting construction around 2030. The project is intended to bridge the gap between ITER's scientific demonstration and a commercially viable DEMO reactor.

Simultaneously, the China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) is pursuing its own, more compact DEMO design, sometimes referred to as the Fusion Design and Study (FDS) series. This reflects a dual-track approach within China, fostering internal competition and exploring different design philosophies for a power plant.

Notable implementations

  • Institute of Plasma Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (ASIPP): Located in Hefei, ASIPP operates the EAST tokamak and leads the design of CFETR. It is a central hub for China's MCF research and its contributions to ITER.

  • Southwestern Institute of Physics (SWIP): Based in Chengdu and operated by the CNNC, SWIP runs the HL-2M and J-TEXT tokamaks. SWIP has a strong focus on reactor-relevant technologies and engineering, including divertor physics and materials.

  • China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor (CFETR): The planned next-step machine for China, intended to be a true fusion pilot plant. It aims to demonstrate steady-state operation with a Q_engineering > 1, self-sufficient tritium breeding, and the generation of hundreds of MWe of net electricity. Its design is more ambitious than ITER in terms of its goal of electricity production and fuel cycle self-sufficiency.

  • BEST (Burning Experimental Superconducting Tokamak): A proposed HTS-based tokamak from the [/companies/energy-singularity](Energy Singularity) company. This represents the emergence of private fusion ventures in China, aiming to leverage HTS technology for a smaller, potentially faster path to a compact fusion device. Its design targets a Q > 10 in a compact configuration.

  • Z-FFR: A conceptual hybrid fusion-fission reactor design being explored by Chinese institutions. The concept uses neutrons from a sub-critical fusion core to drive a fission blanket, potentially offering a way to burn nuclear waste and generate power. This remains a long-term research concept.

Open challenges

Despite rapid progress, China's fusion roadmap faces immense scientific and engineering hurdles common to all global fusion efforts.

  1. Materials Science: Developing and qualifying structural materials that can withstand the intense neutron flux (measured in displacements per atom, or dpa) for the entire operational life of a power plant remains a critical unsolved problem. CFETR will require materials that can tolerate 50-100 dpa, a significant leap from current capabilities.

  2. Tritium Self-Sufficiency: Achieving a tritium breeding ratio (TBR) > 1 in a practical, reliable breeding blanket system has never been demonstrated. The complex engineering of these components, which must operate in an extreme environment of high temperatures, magnetic fields, and neutron bombardment, is a major risk for the CFETR and DEMO timelines.

  3. Heat Exhaust Management: Handling the immense power density exhausted from the plasma onto the divertor—projected to be 10-20 MW/m² in steady state for CFETR—is a grand challenge. This requires novel divertor concepts and materials that can survive these conditions without excessive erosion or contamination of the plasma.

  4. Integrated System Operation: Integrating all the necessary subsystems—superconducting magnets, cryogenics, vacuum, heating, diagnostics, fuel cycle, and remote handling—into a single, reliable, and maintainable power plant is an engineering challenge of unprecedented complexity. The operational experience from ITER will be crucial, but CFETR will need to push beyond it to achieve the high availability required for a commercial plant.

Outlook

The credible 5-15 year trajectory for China's fusion program is one of continued aggressive investment and tangible progress. In the near term (5 years), the focus will be on maximizing the scientific output of EAST and HL-2M to finalize the physics basis for CFETR, while also delivering on ITER commitments. We can expect further records in plasma duration and performance from these machines.

Within the next 10 years, a final decision on the construction of CFETR is anticipated, with site selection and preliminary construction likely to begin. The program will also intensify R&D on key technologies, potentially building dedicated test facilities for components like breeding blankets and divertor prototypes. The first privately funded Chinese fusion prototypes, such as those from Energy Singularity, may also achieve first plasma, testing the viability of the HTS-based compact tokamak approach.

By 2040 (a 15-year horizon), CFETR could be in the advanced stages of construction or early commissioning. The knowledge gained from the full-power D-T campaign at ITER will be flowing back into the Chinese program, directly informing CFETR's operational plan and the design of the subsequent DEMO. China's fusion program is positioned to transition from a follower and collaborator to a world leader, with a clear, state-backed plan to be among the first nations to build a functional fusion power plant.

References

  1. Overview of the Chinese Fusion Program — Nuclear Fusion (2019)
  2. CFETR physics and engineering design — Nuclear Fusion (2022)
  3. Progress of the HL-2M tokamak project — Fusion Engineering and Design (2019)
  4. China's quest for fusion energy — Science (2022)
  5. Recent advances in EAST experiments in support of steady-state operation for ITER and CFETR — Nuclear Fusion (2022)
  6. Fusion Energy: A new star for China's energy transition — Bulletin of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (2023)
  7. China's new 'artificial sun' powers up — Nature (2020)
  8. China's participation in the ITER project: progress and challenges — Journal of Fusion Energy (2017)